Cognitive Psychology: Theory, Process, and Methodology - Dawn M. McBride, J. Cooper Cutting 2019
Glossary
Abstract imagery:
an image of an environment based on an overview of the environment
Affordances:
behaviors that are possible in a given environment
Algorithm:
a prescribed problem-solving strategy that always leads to the correct solution in problems with a single correct solution
Amnesia:
a memory deficit due to a brain lesion or deterioration
Analogical transfer:
using the same solution for two problems with the same underlying structure
Anaphoric inference:
using a pronoun to refer to something in a previous sentence
Anterograde amnesia:
a memory deficit for information or experiences encountered after a brain lesion
Automatic processing:
processing that is not controlled and does not tax cognitive resources
Availability bias:
bias in reasoning where examples easily brought to mind are relied on to make judgments and solve problems
Axon:
an extension from the neuron nucleus where an electrical impulse in the neuron occurs
Basic-level concept:
level of concept hierarchy where common objects (e.g., dog) reside
Behaviorist:
one who adheres to the perspective in psychology that focuses on observable behaviors
Biological perspective:
perspective in psychology that describes cognition according to the mechanisms of the brain
Bizarreness effect:
result showing that memory for unusual images is superior to memory for typical images
Bottom-up processing:
understanding the environment through basic feature identification and processing
Broca’s aphasia:
a deficit in language production
Case study:
a research study that focuses on intensive analyses of a single individual or more broadly on a single observation unit
Categorical perception:
an issue in language comprehension due to the categorization of phonemes
Central executive:
the part of the working-memory system that controls the flow of information within the system and into long-term memory
Childhood amnesia (infantile amnesia):
a phenomenon where many episodic memories of early childhood are inaccessible in later life
Chunking:
a process of organizing information that allows more items to be stored in memory
Coarticulation:
an issue in language comprehension due to the overlapping of sounds in spoken language
Cocktail party effect:
an effect of attention where one’s focus changes abruptly due to a salient stimulus (such as one’s name) in the environment
Cognitive economy:
the idea that concept information is stored at the most efficient level of the hierarchy
Concreteness effect:
a result showing that memory for concrete concepts is superior to memory for abstract concepts
Conditional reasoning (propositional reasoning):
a process by which a conclusion follows from conditional statements (“if, then” statements)
Consolidation:
neural process by which memories are strengthened and more permanently stored in the brain
Controlled processing:
processing due to an intention that consumes cognitive resources
Correlational study:
a research study that examines relationships between measured variables
Deductive reasoning:
making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information
Deep processing:
encoding information according to its meaning
Deep structure:
the meaning of a sentence
Dendrites:
extensions from neurons that receive chemical messages (neurotransmitters) from other neurons
Dependent variable:
the behavior that is measured in a research study
Determinism:
the principle that behaviors have underlying causes and that understanding involves identification of what these causes are and how they are related to the behavior of interest
Distal stimulus:
stimulus in the environment
Dorsal pathway:
the pathway in the brain that processes “where” information about the environment
DRM procedure (Deese-Roediger-McDermott procedure):
research methodology that experimentally creates false memories for theme items that are not presented as part of a list of related items
Dual-process framework:
the idea that cognitive tasks can be performed using two separate and distinct processes
Dual-task method:
a research procedure where subjects are given two tasks to perform at once—to compare with performance on one task alone—to examine interference due to the second task
Elaborative encoding:
processing of information according to its meaning to allow for longer storage in memory
Electroencephalography (EEG):
a brain recording technique that records the activity of large sections of neurons from different areas of the scalp
Embodied cognition:
a perspective in psychology that cognition focuses on bodily interaction with the environment
Empiricism:
the principle that the key to understanding new things is through systematic observation
Encoding:
the process of inputting information into memory
Encoding specificity principle:
the idea that memory is best when the circumstances of encoding and retrieval are matched
Episodic buffer:
the part of the working-memory system that holds episodic memories as an overflow for the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic memory:
memory for a specific episode or experience in one’s life
Exemplar approach:
the idea that concepts are represented based on exemplars of the category that one has experienced previously
Experimental study:
a research study that examines causal relationships between variables
Family resemblance:
things belonging to a category are related by virtue of having a set of overlapping similar set of features
Flashbulb memories:
vivid memories for hearing about a significant event that are not always accurate
Framing bias:
a bias in reasoning where the context in which a problem is presented influences our judgment
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):
an MRI technique that images brain activity during a task
Functional fixedness:
focusing on how things are typically used and ignoring other potential uses in solving a problem
Geons:
basic three-dimensional pieces of objects
Gestalt psychology:
a perspective in psychology that focuses on how organizational principles allow us to perceive and understand the environment
Heuristic:
a problem-solving strategy that does not always lead to the correct solution
Hill-climbing strategy:
a problem solving strategy that involves continuous steps toward the goal state
Hippocampus:
an area of the brain important for memory encoding and retrieval
IDEAL framework:
a step-by-step description of problem-solving processes
Ill-defined problem:
a problem that lacks a clearly defined goal state and constraints
Implicit memory:
procedural memory that alters performance based on previous experiences
Inattentional blindness (change blindness):
failure to notice a change in the environment
Independent variable:
a factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher (e.g., randomly assigning subjects to a group in the experiment)
Inductive reasoning:
making and evaluating arguments from specific information to general information
Insight:
suddenly realizing the solution to a problem
Invariance problem:
an issue in language comprehension due to variation in how phonemes are produced
Level-of-processing effect:
an effect showing better memory for information encoded with deep processing than with shallow processing
Long-term memory:
long-term (i.e., lifetime) storage of memory after some elaborative processing has occurred
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
a technique to image the internal portions of the body using the magnetic fields present in the cells
Magnetoencephalography (MEG):
a brain recording technique that records activity of large sections of neurons from different areas of the scalp using a large magnet that is placed over the head
Means-ends strategy:
a problem-solving strategy that involves repeated comparisons between the current state and the goal state
Mental set:
a tendency to use the same set of solutions to solve similar problems
Method of loci:
a memory aid where images of to-be-remembered information are created with locations along a familiar route or place
Misinformation effect:
a memory result where subjects have false memories for an event based on suggestive information provided by others
Mnemonics:
memory techniques that aid memory performance
Morphemes:
the smallest units of a language that contain meaning
Motor imagery:
a mental representation of motor movements
Neuron:
the basic cell of the brain
Parsimony:
the principle of preferring simple explanations over more complex ones
Partial-report method:
a research procedure where subjects are asked to report only a portion of the information presented
Pegword mnemonic:
a memory aid where ordinal words (e.g., one, two) are rhymed with pegwords (e.g., bun, shoe) to create images of pegwords and to-be-remembered items interacting
Phoneme restoration effect:
the use of top-down processing to comprehend fragmented language
Phonemes:
distinct sound units that comprise a language
Phonological loop:
the part of the working-memory system that holds auditory codes of information
Picture superiority effect:
a result showing that memory for pictures is superior to memory for words of the same concepts
Plaques:
bundles of protein that develop in the synapse, characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease
Positron emission tomography (PET):
a technique that images neuron activity in the brain through radioactive markers in the bloodstream
Pragmatics:
the examination of how language is used in particular contexts
Primacy effect:
an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded first
Primary auditory cortex (A1):
the receiving area of auditory information in the cortex of the brain
Primary visual cortex (V1):
the receiving area of visual information in the cortex of the brain
Principle of Pragnanz:
an organizational principle that allows for the simplest interpretation of the environment
Proactive interference:
when old information interferes with the storage or retrieval of new information
Procedural memory:
memory for a skill or procedure
Propositional representation:
the idea that visual information is represented nonspatially in the mind
Prospective memory:
memory for future intentions
Prototype approach:
the idea that concepts are represented based on a typical (common) instance of that concept
Proximal stimulus:
stimulus as it is represented in the mind
Recency effect:
an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded last
Representationalist:
one who adheres to the perspective in psychology that concepts can be represented in the mind
Representativeness bias:
a bias in reasoning where stereotypes are relied on to make judgments and solve problems
Retrieval:
the process of outputting information from memory
Retroactive interference:
when new information interferes with the storage or retrieval of old information
Retrograde amnesia:
a memory deficit for information learned or experiences encountered before a brain lesion
Scenographic imagery:
the image of an environment based on landmarks encountered in that environment along a navigated route
Schema:
the general knowledge structure for an event or situation
Scientific method:
a method of gaining knowledge in a field that relies on observations of phenomena that allows for tests of hypotheses about those phenomena
Semantic memory:
memory for facts or knowledge
Semantics:
meaning contained within language
Sensory memory:
the very short-term memory storage of unprocessed sensory information
Sensory system:
a system that receives and processes input from stimuli in the environment
Serial position curve:
an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded at the beginning and end of an encoding session
Shadowing task:
a research procedure where subjects are asked to repeat (i.e., shadow) a message heard over headphones
Shallow processing:
encoding information according to its surface features
Short-term memory:
the short-term storage of memory with minimal processing that is forgotten quickly without elaborative processing
Simon effect:
interference in response due to inconsistency between the response and the stimulus
Single-cell recording:
a brain activity recording technique that records activity from a single neuron or small group of neurons in the brain
Spacing effect:
an effect showing better memory when information is studied in smaller units over time instead of all at once, as in cramming
Spatial representation:
the idea that visual information is represented in analog form in the mind
Storage:
the process of storing information in memory
Stroop task:
a research procedure where subjects are asked to name the color of printed words where some words are color words that conflict with the print color showing interference in the naming task
Subordinate concept:
the level of concept hierarchy where specific exemplars of a basic-level concept (e.g., husky) reside
Superordinate concept:
the level of concept hierarchy where general categories of the basic-level concepts (e.g., mammal) reside
Surface structure:
the order of words presented in a sentence
Syllogistic reasoning:
a process by which a conclusion follows necessarily from a series of statements
Synapse:
a space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received
Syntactic parsing:
building the syntactic structure of a sentence
Syntax:
the rules structure of a language
Tangles:
protein fibers that develop in a neuron’s nucleus characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease
Testability:
the principle that theories must be stated in ways that allow them to be evaluated through observation
Testing effect:
an effect in memory showing better memory for information that has been tested in the retention interval as compared with other encoding of the information
Theory of unconscious inference:
the idea that we make unconscious inferences about the world when we perceive it
Top-down processing:
understanding the environment through global knowledge of the environment and its principles
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS):
a method of temporarily stimulating or suppressing neurons using an electrical current
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):
a method of temporarily stimulating or suppressing neurons using a magnetic field
Transfer-appropriate processing:
an effect in memory showing that matches in processing between encoding and retrieval improve memory
Typicality effect:
a result where more common members of a category show a processing advantage
Ventral pathway:
the pathway in the brain that processes “what” information about the environment
Visuospatial sketchpad:
the part of the working-memory system that holds visual and spatial codes of information
Well-defined problem:
a problem that has a clearly defined goal state and constraints
Wernicke’s aphasia:
a deficit in language comprehension
Working-backward strategy:
a problem-solving strategy that involves beginning with the goal state and working back to the initial state
Working memory:
processing a unit of information that is the current focus of attention