Cognitive Psychology: Theory, Process, and Methodology - Dawn M. McBride, J. Cooper Cutting 2019

Glossary

Abstract imagery:

an image of an environment based on an overview of the environment

Affordances:

behaviors that are possible in a given environment

Algorithm:

a prescribed problem-solving strategy that always leads to the correct solution in problems with a single correct solution

Amnesia:

a memory deficit due to a brain lesion or deterioration

Analogical transfer:

using the same solution for two problems with the same underlying structure

Anaphoric inference:

using a pronoun to refer to something in a previous sentence

Anterograde amnesia:

a memory deficit for information or experiences encountered after a brain lesion

Automatic processing:

processing that is not controlled and does not tax cognitive resources

Availability bias:

bias in reasoning where examples easily brought to mind are relied on to make judgments and solve problems

Axon:

an extension from the neuron nucleus where an electrical impulse in the neuron occurs

Basic-level concept:

level of concept hierarchy where common objects (e.g., dog) reside

Behaviorist:

one who adheres to the perspective in psychology that focuses on observable behaviors

Biological perspective:

perspective in psychology that describes cognition according to the mechanisms of the brain

Bizarreness effect:

result showing that memory for unusual images is superior to memory for typical images

Bottom-up processing:

understanding the environment through basic feature identification and processing

Broca’s aphasia:

a deficit in language production

Case study:

a research study that focuses on intensive analyses of a single individual or more broadly on a single observation unit

Categorical perception:

an issue in language comprehension due to the categorization of phonemes

Central executive:

the part of the working-memory system that controls the flow of information within the system and into long-term memory

Childhood amnesia (infantile amnesia):

a phenomenon where many episodic memories of early childhood are inaccessible in later life

Chunking:

a process of organizing information that allows more items to be stored in memory

Coarticulation:

an issue in language comprehension due to the overlapping of sounds in spoken language

Cocktail party effect:

an effect of attention where one’s focus changes abruptly due to a salient stimulus (such as one’s name) in the environment

Cognitive economy:

the idea that concept information is stored at the most efficient level of the hierarchy

Concreteness effect:

a result showing that memory for concrete concepts is superior to memory for abstract concepts

Conditional reasoning (propositional reasoning):

a process by which a conclusion follows from conditional statements (“if, then” statements)

Consolidation:

neural process by which memories are strengthened and more permanently stored in the brain

Controlled processing:

processing due to an intention that consumes cognitive resources

Correlational study:

a research study that examines relationships between measured variables

Deductive reasoning:

making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information

Deep processing:

encoding information according to its meaning

Deep structure:

the meaning of a sentence

Dendrites:

extensions from neurons that receive chemical messages (neurotransmitters) from other neurons

Dependent variable:

the behavior that is measured in a research study

Determinism:

the principle that behaviors have underlying causes and that understanding involves identification of what these causes are and how they are related to the behavior of interest

Distal stimulus:

stimulus in the environment

Dorsal pathway:

the pathway in the brain that processes “where” information about the environment

DRM procedure (Deese-Roediger-McDermott procedure):

research methodology that experimentally creates false memories for theme items that are not presented as part of a list of related items

Dual-process framework:

the idea that cognitive tasks can be performed using two separate and distinct processes

Dual-task method:

a research procedure where subjects are given two tasks to perform at once—to compare with performance on one task alone—to examine interference due to the second task

Elaborative encoding:

processing of information according to its meaning to allow for longer storage in memory

Electroencephalography (EEG):

a brain recording technique that records the activity of large sections of neurons from different areas of the scalp

Embodied cognition:

a perspective in psychology that cognition focuses on bodily interaction with the environment

Empiricism:

the principle that the key to understanding new things is through systematic observation

Encoding:

the process of inputting information into memory

Encoding specificity principle:

the idea that memory is best when the circumstances of encoding and retrieval are matched

Episodic buffer:

the part of the working-memory system that holds episodic memories as an overflow for the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Episodic memory:

memory for a specific episode or experience in one’s life

Exemplar approach:

the idea that concepts are represented based on exemplars of the category that one has experienced previously

Experimental study:

a research study that examines causal relationships between variables

Family resemblance:

things belonging to a category are related by virtue of having a set of overlapping similar set of features

Flashbulb memories:

vivid memories for hearing about a significant event that are not always accurate

Framing bias:

a bias in reasoning where the context in which a problem is presented influences our judgment

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):

an MRI technique that images brain activity during a task

Functional fixedness:

focusing on how things are typically used and ignoring other potential uses in solving a problem

Geons:

basic three-dimensional pieces of objects

Gestalt psychology:

a perspective in psychology that focuses on how organizational principles allow us to perceive and understand the environment

Heuristic:

a problem-solving strategy that does not always lead to the correct solution

Hill-climbing strategy:

a problem solving strategy that involves continuous steps toward the goal state

Hippocampus:

an area of the brain important for memory encoding and retrieval

IDEAL framework:

a step-by-step description of problem-solving processes

Ill-defined problem:

a problem that lacks a clearly defined goal state and constraints

Implicit memory:

procedural memory that alters performance based on previous experiences

Inattentional blindness (change blindness):

failure to notice a change in the environment

Independent variable:

a factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher (e.g., randomly assigning subjects to a group in the experiment)

Inductive reasoning:

making and evaluating arguments from specific information to general information

Insight:

suddenly realizing the solution to a problem

Invariance problem:

an issue in language comprehension due to variation in how phonemes are produced

Level-of-processing effect:

an effect showing better memory for information encoded with deep processing than with shallow processing

Long-term memory:

long-term (i.e., lifetime) storage of memory after some elaborative processing has occurred

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):

a technique to image the internal portions of the body using the magnetic fields present in the cells

Magnetoencephalography (MEG):

a brain recording technique that records activity of large sections of neurons from different areas of the scalp using a large magnet that is placed over the head

Means-ends strategy:

a problem-solving strategy that involves repeated comparisons between the current state and the goal state

Mental set:

a tendency to use the same set of solutions to solve similar problems

Method of loci:

a memory aid where images of to-be-remembered information are created with locations along a familiar route or place

Misinformation effect:

a memory result where subjects have false memories for an event based on suggestive information provided by others

Mnemonics:

memory techniques that aid memory performance

Morphemes:

the smallest units of a language that contain meaning

Motor imagery:

a mental representation of motor movements

Neuron:

the basic cell of the brain

Parsimony:

the principle of preferring simple explanations over more complex ones

Partial-report method:

a research procedure where subjects are asked to report only a portion of the information presented

Pegword mnemonic:

a memory aid where ordinal words (e.g., one, two) are rhymed with pegwords (e.g., bun, shoe) to create images of pegwords and to-be-remembered items interacting

Phoneme restoration effect:

the use of top-down processing to comprehend fragmented language

Phonemes:

distinct sound units that comprise a language

Phonological loop:

the part of the working-memory system that holds auditory codes of information

Picture superiority effect:

a result showing that memory for pictures is superior to memory for words of the same concepts

Plaques:

bundles of protein that develop in the synapse, characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease

Positron emission tomography (PET):

a technique that images neuron activity in the brain through radioactive markers in the bloodstream

Pragmatics:

the examination of how language is used in particular contexts

Primacy effect:

an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded first

Primary auditory cortex (A1):

the receiving area of auditory information in the cortex of the brain

Primary visual cortex (V1):

the receiving area of visual information in the cortex of the brain

Principle of Pragnanz:

an organizational principle that allows for the simplest interpretation of the environment

Proactive interference:

when old information interferes with the storage or retrieval of new information

Procedural memory:

memory for a skill or procedure

Propositional representation:

the idea that visual information is represented nonspatially in the mind

Prospective memory:

memory for future intentions

Prototype approach:

the idea that concepts are represented based on a typical (common) instance of that concept

Proximal stimulus:

stimulus as it is represented in the mind

Recency effect:

an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded last

Representationalist:

one who adheres to the perspective in psychology that concepts can be represented in the mind

Representativeness bias:

a bias in reasoning where stereotypes are relied on to make judgments and solve problems

Retrieval:

the process of outputting information from memory

Retroactive interference:

when new information interferes with the storage or retrieval of old information

Retrograde amnesia:

a memory deficit for information learned or experiences encountered before a brain lesion

Scenographic imagery:

the image of an environment based on landmarks encountered in that environment along a navigated route

Schema:

the general knowledge structure for an event or situation

Scientific method:

a method of gaining knowledge in a field that relies on observations of phenomena that allows for tests of hypotheses about those phenomena

Semantic memory:

memory for facts or knowledge

Semantics:

meaning contained within language

Sensory memory:

the very short-term memory storage of unprocessed sensory information

Sensory system:

a system that receives and processes input from stimuli in the environment

Serial position curve:

an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded at the beginning and end of an encoding session

Shadowing task:

a research procedure where subjects are asked to repeat (i.e., shadow) a message heard over headphones

Shallow processing:

encoding information according to its surface features

Short-term memory:

the short-term storage of memory with minimal processing that is forgotten quickly without elaborative processing

Simon effect:

interference in response due to inconsistency between the response and the stimulus

Single-cell recording:

a brain activity recording technique that records activity from a single neuron or small group of neurons in the brain

Spacing effect:

an effect showing better memory when information is studied in smaller units over time instead of all at once, as in cramming

Spatial representation:

the idea that visual information is represented in analog form in the mind

Storage:

the process of storing information in memory

Stroop task:

a research procedure where subjects are asked to name the color of printed words where some words are color words that conflict with the print color showing interference in the naming task

Subordinate concept:

the level of concept hierarchy where specific exemplars of a basic-level concept (e.g., husky) reside

Superordinate concept:

the level of concept hierarchy where general categories of the basic-level concepts (e.g., mammal) reside

Surface structure:

the order of words presented in a sentence

Syllogistic reasoning:

a process by which a conclusion follows necessarily from a series of statements

Synapse:

a space between neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received

Syntactic parsing:

building the syntactic structure of a sentence

Syntax:

the rules structure of a language

Tangles:

protein fibers that develop in a neuron’s nucleus characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease

Testability:

the principle that theories must be stated in ways that allow them to be evaluated through observation

Testing effect:

an effect in memory showing better memory for information that has been tested in the retention interval as compared with other encoding of the information

Theory of unconscious inference:

the idea that we make unconscious inferences about the world when we perceive it

Top-down processing:

understanding the environment through global knowledge of the environment and its principles

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS):

a method of temporarily stimulating or suppressing neurons using an electrical current

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):

a method of temporarily stimulating or suppressing neurons using a magnetic field

Transfer-appropriate processing:

an effect in memory showing that matches in processing between encoding and retrieval improve memory

Typicality effect:

a result where more common members of a category show a processing advantage

Ventral pathway:

the pathway in the brain that processes “what” information about the environment

Visuospatial sketchpad:

the part of the working-memory system that holds visual and spatial codes of information

Well-defined problem:

a problem that has a clearly defined goal state and constraints

Wernicke’s aphasia:

a deficit in language comprehension

Working-backward strategy:

a problem-solving strategy that involves beginning with the goal state and working back to the initial state

Working memory:

processing a unit of information that is the current focus of attention